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07 Substitutes TbR TOHuxjriiiT -". w m .a vra nnim miuni lu.iic ' .substituted i tiat of the. white mulberry, when it can.be obtained ;but the late frosts frequently depri ve the worm of their food xrhe'a cubstits& . xu?eit, k undoubtedly is the ilettuce. It -cJ:fca certain even that some worms, have - Veen &d upon it thr ou gh all their ages. Tlie' iabbage-lettucfe is perhkpl iheest. ; The leaves of tht rcse tree ana tne wnue "raspberry tatsh hive been used 'with some advantage k "The dandelionone of the vfirst plantswhich "appear in theSpringyis taidjio have .been'- employed : for feeding - worms until the fourth change S As a su r Xititute for "great mulberry leaves, the same, dried in the sun in Autumnand kept dur- i.... .am. an n j m 1.1 a 1 r- r seems to be no doubt that the Chinese use "": ; that tacthod constantly to feed the you ng ".worraB, but Loiseleur Deslongchamps, ' -who tried it, entirely failed; Some other J persons however lhave - succeeded in Eu : ' rone r I Those dried white mulberry leaves Are reduced to powder when heeded,; and moistened ; with a little water just before giving them to the Vorms. . - ; . ; . - It seems! that there are some plants still . unknown to those-.who attend ; the silk WnViri whirK ar. r.anahle of sustaininor h these through all their ages, and enabling them to spin their cocoons 5 for some worms food. : lived there, and after a" certain ie- ka 1al4na 4ka ff'tnrlolion urhirli in flip VA V Vrf b V W V V asw . north are 'found in most gardens at an . I . Tl.ii ii(a a 4Kio no nai lias seen tne worms ieea, on various muu tf leaves He. has seen some which were attacked with the disease called the yel- chinkapin (caztmvut pttmUa Lam.J arid it is said that worms "attacked wifii the same disease in Pennsylvania devoured oak 9nd'wprA mrp.d hv them. It is to -. be regretted tliat the specific name ot that oak was not mentioned 5 but it will not be time. maV make ns acauainted with a ve- . ry important fact, if that be true, as that ' disease destroys a vast number of worms. Of the Seex or the White Mulberry In the Southern States; and perhaps in Pentifivlvahia- the herrv mav-be sown im- 7 Tneuiateiy ;auer neing gatnerea, ana me "young 'plants will resist the winter, .par-, 'f ticuiarly if they be covered withstraw, v ana tnus one season -snail oe gamea- nx . usually the ripe berries! being gathered from strong middle-aged ; trees, are put in water press ed with" the hand and washed till the : palp is separated and the seed is perfectly clean The seeds fall to the .bottom; and- the water being poured off, j they are spread upon a cloth and dried in uic auauc ui a nattu ait j, oiwuhvivu . methodi8 to be preferred "to drying the " - 'it. j ' A J A' - times 5 when kept in that way; thevj are apt to heat and mould,;and the seed is of- v v t v m u w K B w W W B W H v m frpm which the berries are gathered should that the fruit may not suffer and come to full mnftirifvi ' T ? ,5 Of the Cultivation of the Trrs. "-..The soil selected fori-the purpoBe of - piaiiwiug lue.nuivc uiuiuciijr -i ccs suuuiu h rithr liht than rich, neither"" moiftt - - --- - " . . . nor. too ary . -n ougntto De piougnea as " aeepiy as- possioie j ana uiggmg m ine fall preceding the sowing is found to be xne oest meuioa. , in rraace, xne sou is QuffasTnucii as inree ieei. wueu practica ble. The ground being harrowed or rak . -edi the seed is sown in drills. If in the , fall, nothing will be required but cover- -. mg them with straw or manute, if much the seed is sown in the spring, the ground must be kept tree from weeds jand the vaunVnlants thinned till thev are ten or weive mcnes apar- a nejr musi ue wu tered frequently, if rains do" not often muiSLCU vac suit "u vu bui idtt in uic ground ..harden hat should be lightly stirred V .When a vear V old.' the ulants mav be . puiiu uursci jr lUWBf auuui. uuee tn UA tance between each. And wh en the;yoa ng -be planted where it is intended to remain. .Tine hole Bnouia pe six teet square vvn en bowever, the bottom should be dugvup . I with a spade to lighten the soil.; The roots - inuuiu UC liiuimcu.vaiciuuT.nuii a JtJiiic i Wherever they have been injured by takv Cr inor nri tKe tree-"If will! den end on the "be planted V , bat it-wiH .be found useful to v. plant with it a stake to jwhicn' it may;:be tied inotdeif to make it steady. In fill- -voro"snx.ii3i, xq gpyet me roots, ana .tne 5 soit should 2e oresed on: themi as with ;;1tCtrrreate should be taken Jest terodts shbiild be long exposed to the air during, th operation of planting. . : If it M intended to plant' the trees in . Ather usual way, onlv two or thrpp rtould baleft on eacUbranch, these ch the cut':: ir-rdlr.vca to reniZLin, in'craer toxpr.iu Ihs hzz-2 cfihtttrce. About the raontb cf i larc!;, the. next year, the ground is rjlourrhcd round tha-vfoot of ti trees, and thev are tied withlnew strings to the stakes. r It is well to 'continue to ta!:c off i thii buds, whicb3are turned towards the centre of the tree!? as the gathering of the leaves would be rendered difficult if bran ches were allowed to crow in thatrdirec- tion. y.it oueni nowever to oe paricuiar- !y noticed that tne, leaves snouia not; oe ttluclced for ' food f for s - the- - worms - till the fourth or fifth year; If a mulberry hiedge be intendedv'pjauts'of bne year oldi;are put in aliurrdW;" eighteen inches v apart; ft hie tops, are cut, leavmgtwo puds-only tor branches, r The next sprint one of these" branches is cut i f about oneffoot from the crbuhd, so that each tree has a long and a short branch. The prese.rved branches are' then bent horizontally, and tied with willow-twigs. i- At the beginning" of te third ; Vear. the branches must De cut a- boutr two feet from, the; ground, but the leaves must not be used till the next sea son, In Germany some treesplanted near a canal were saved from the frost .of 1825. it would oe,weil to ascertain wnetner inai be a constant fact. ! p- A he propagation of - the from the seed, is! by far the thefotticke&t also-: but ther sesiiwhen it mav be necessary to have re course to other methods.! Independent of thej preceding methods, thtere are three different ways to propagate it, namely by means of the roots bv lavera and from cut- tings ' "t I - '.") i J 1 1at:J When!a tree has not BTOWn well. if cut near the ground at the hird or fourth vear. several suckers will soon appear on the Surface of the ground. (These maybe covered! with someof the mould raked round the main trunkiilia sufficient num- cf the gifted brinili ia tdlcd in tret? 6 tcrc-lisbothof rVayr 3 cr.drc fit the cpace'exactlyt and tli v!.ale b ee- and these are said to 1 2 drawn Lf one cured in the usual way- Frcfcrrisj the hcrse.' 'Henee-Wood things it probable composition cade of turpentine; trzx and that between the, first'and c.c.J dates, rosin snread on tlnn' leather, to the nor-1 that is 1602 and 1649. the tar of clay,, which is usually ecployed a 0 oe conitnwa mlbery tree test mode and are some ca- ber of roots are grown intLj. then be separated and each . They planted with care in a place where they shall be water ed often. f:yV . I " K. "- ,r SJd. When the sap is rising in the spring, vouni? branches of low trees mav be bent down and fastened with forks. They are men Dunea at mat piace unuer grounu. -In the course of one! year- or little more; they have usually taken roots. They must then! be separated; from the and hey mav be planted as , Branches about a foot Ion ken .from the best grown pre ;s, an in fine mould so deep that nnt nt ThiJ method requires cons parent stem, the roots. are ta- buried only three or he grouud tant watering during the first season ; and notwithstand ing the greatest care, many cuttings al ways fail... ; . i : Of the pRUNiNoi and PulLiko of the I .Leaves. Before this subject is dismissed, it may be observed that a! methodical pruning of the branches is attended with great advan tage particularly Ithe invigorating of the tree ; but great caution must be used lest a part should be pruned more than the rest. and the sap should be unequally divided Observe particularly that when the leaves of a tree are pulled off for worms, all with, out any exception should be gathered, for if some are lett, they will attract the sap exclusively, and the rest, for want of nou- rishment,are destroyed. There is even a prejudice in France that these trees in or der to thrive, must; be stripped yearly of Al S x a ' " t . . ! A ineir leaves , Dutxnougn ix, seems to oean error, yet it is certain that this operation does not iniure them material I v. and these "i v 1 aa trees become coveredT with new leaves be- fore,the end of the! season; j The leaves should not be pulled off whilst the dew is on tnem, ana never alter sunset. 1 it is well to employ a double ladder to gather leave's, in order to avoid hurting their branches as much as possible. ' 36. Other uses of the White and Red Mulberry. Trees. These trees afford a delightful shade. and1 pn account -of their1 buick crowth might be planted in rows in streets and I HISTORY OF RAILROADS.? V. V . Railways, according to the ordinary im plication of the term, are doubtless of Eng lish origin. - Tliis species of road Was prst thought of in the. collieries of that coon try, in the counties of Northumberland and Durbam, io&ilitatetran3portation from the.ine to the river, for extensive distribution. frhe distance between the two places would be a: few miles only. A road must be prepared and maintained, and a proprietor ot one of these mines would soon discovery that -with wagons heavily loaded and constantly running, the ruts would become deep, the track miry, and great difficulty perpetually recurring to; keep it in repair. It woiilcl appear ex tremely desirable to prevent this trouble, and - ever returning expense, i by setting regularly to work, and constructing at once, if possible, a road such thatit should not be broken up, nor need repair in ma ny years It would cost a little more at first, but when once j completed, all anx iety about it would be at an end, and the funds thus laid out being soon repaid, it would afterwards be an instrument of clear and continual profit. This would eyidently reduce the price of coal to the people all over the country, and at the same time would be the means of vast ad vantages to the owner of the mine. And here we might stop to remark how obvious it is, tHat by such improvements injury is done to none, and all are benefitted ; for every miner may avail himself of the same means, and derive the same advan tages, while warmth and comfort are extended to the poorest people of the country. ' j ! In constructing a road, the first expe-. dient might possibly be to sink stones into it, or to place rails across to furnish an un yielding foundation. These, however, though covered with earth, would soon become exceeding rough, and the draught heavy. Upon such a road lage loads; could not be taken in, the wear of the carriage would be great, the horses would be harassed, and their sinews strained for want of a sure and regular footing, and their muscles would be shattered and their strength broken down, by the incessant shocks and obstructions of the wheels. Different methods would occur, such as removing the ground completely, to make a I firm foundation, cutting down sharp ridges, banking across ravines, ; and pav ing regularly with stones mutually fitted. But even in this case it would be found that by rains and the frosts of winter, and the constant action of wheels, and ironed hoofs, and cumbrous loads, the whole would be converted into confused masses of stones and mud,' at least as bad, if not much worse, than if such a system had never been adopted. Men are ingenious when their interest is concerned, and ne cessity is the parent of invention To a reflecting man, it would be evident, that if only lines of support could be provided for the wheels, it would not be difficult to make the track for the horse of such materials as not easily to be deranged. All that was necessary then, was to lay down two narallel lines of compact &. en- 1 during timber, on which flanged wheels high- Ways. The wood is making casks, pails; and hoops, and isus- excellent for Cabinet-mak- excellent food ed for various purposes bjr ers. j Their berries are an for poultry, and may be preserved in su gar of vinegar. auperb linen has been lately manutactured from . the bark, in Europe, paper, and ropes; twine, &c. &c. may be made! of the same part of that va luaDie tree. 1 j On the Grafting of the Mulberry Tree. Asjit is doubted, even in Europe, whe ther "grafting is of any us( , and as that operation is performed-: on the ; mulberry tree, j a it is on any other tree, it would seem! ubbJuss to sav anv thih? on this sub- mg is con- jectYet considering that stantly practised in Italy, that theVarie- ties df the white mulberry tree 'enumerat ed above, can be propagated only in that way, j and that it has beed grafted with greati siuccess'n ouri native red mulberry treeej-it isof importance, at least to ob serve, that'grafting s practised with sue cess joften in this country and that the operation of bttddin particularly has suc- tww " iiijuuru j a nc, moue 01 grait ing niost-commonly used, is the pipe erafi- rmca 13 uone oy supping on a cylin- ucr or luoe maue o: the DarK or the tree from pmcn you Wish! tq graft, with one or more buds on, just aStKe bdjs make whis tles in the spring with the hark ot young brandies. That cylinder is then applied to a nranch of; the same size on the tree which; is to be grafted, which -branch has been deprived of itsbark;f so as to admit of the; cylinder precisely If the cylinder wv lttlfec ajr oe, u ana nttea to the uiaucu,. u too sroan must also lie slit, but a piece of the saute bark or of the barU might run, taking care to secure the tim bers in their places upon sills resting on solid earth Such was the first origin of-Railways. 'At the coal-works in the neighborhood of Newcastle UDOn Tvnei' savs Wood. mf mf ' the expense of conveying the coals from . . At t ' T ' t tne pits to me snipping piaces wouia oe Very great Down to the year 1600, the Only mode appears to have been: by carts, bh the ordinary roads 5 and in some in stances by " panniers" on horseback." From 1602 to 1649. A record," continues Wood. ' in the books ot one of the free companies in New castle, dated lb02, states, That from tyme out of mynd yt hath been accustom ed that all eole-waynes (coal carts) did usually carry and bring eight bau lis (17 cwt.)' Of coles to all the staythes upon the river of Tyne ; but of late several hath brought only, or scarce, seven baulls."- The cost of transporting so heavy an ar ticle as coal along the common roads, which may be supposed would not be of the best description, in carts containing seven, or eight bolls, would operate very powerfully in accelerating the introduc tion of some improvement in the mode of conveyance to lessen the expense." t In 1649, Gray tells us, Manv thnuanH people are employ ed in this trade of coales. Many live by conveyme them in wacrnrtQ and waines to the river Tyne. Some south pnuemen natn upon great losse of bene it, come into this countrv to hftaifl monies in coale pits. Master Beaumont, a gentleman of great ingenuity and 'rare parts, adventured in our mines with" his 3UUU0, who brought with him iriaht rare engines not known :. then in those-nn rf . as the art to boore with iron rodds, to try the deepnesse and thicknesse of the coale; rare engines to draw the water out of the pits waeeons with one hnra rv ;n r-t-w down coales from the pits1 to the staythes to meTiver;;t"';;i'"F My In the former of these rjasaapea thV.jif- riages are called waynes, and the lat- - Wood and Treogold orf RallroiulsJS? l7l t One of the best works to which I cm ri. it Practical Treatise on'Kailroadj nrl int..-: nor Communication in general, with original ex periments, and table' f fthe comparative value of Canals and Rau0ad. ; llluatfatcd by engra vings. ; By. Nicholas Wood; Colliery-viewerU- Wood on BaHroads. pp,' S4. 35,: Itailwav beran to be ustsd, especially. as Beaumont bro't along with him not only a vast sum of mo ney For those times, but many rare arts and engines. " " v r From 1649 to 1767. ' J j In the life of Lord Keeper North, the Railway is distinctly mentioned The manner of the carriage is : by laying rails of timber from the colliery itoevriveri exactly straight; and ;ralleL9 Ajnd bulky carts are made with four rollers, (four wheels) fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so, easy that one horse will draw down four or;five chfildroriof coals and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants J ' s'' ' " .'r i' i In 1765, a description is grven cfia railway as then co hstructedr to thjs effect:'' A road was traced six. feet . in breadth.; It was then excavated to level th ground and to arrive at a proper basis for the road. Across: the excavation were laid down pieces of oak, four, six,, or ; eight inches square,! and at the distance of two or three feet from each other. The pieces. it is sain, need to oe square at tneir ex tremities only. Upon these are laid do wn and fastened other pieces of r woc-d in the direction of the road These are sawed six or. seven inches broad by five deep, and secured to the other pieces with pins of wood. They extend on each side of tne roaa aiong its wnoie lengtnf ; com monly they are placed at four feet dis tance Irom each other, and Xorm the inte rior breadth of the road. j Originally, but little was done in reduc ing these roads to a level, or in contriv ing machinery for drawing the wagons up the-hills, and letting down with safety and a proper speed. For this last pur pose, an instrument was usea caiiea a u convoy." It! was an iron or j wooden rod, acting as a lever, known to mechan- t ' fit ' 1 " ! 1 j lcians as . a lever 01 trie secona sort, turn ing at one end round a pin or fulcrum, t ' 1 ' 1 A ' J - ' ti At py wnicn it was secured to tne side 01 tne wagon between the wheels. Frjom this lower extremity it ascended in j a form somewhat curved over the hind wheel, and rested near its upper end inja hook, at the highest rear corner of the wagon body. Upon this lever next to t,he sup- porting pin or Doit, ana towaras tne nina wheel, a piece of wood was fastened call ed the breast, which was shaped to the curvature of the wheel. Sometimes a con voy was provided on each side to act with greater power in commanding th$ move ment of the wagon, and then the upper extremities were connected by a piece of wooa rcacning across petween mem, oy means of which the attendant could act upon both at the same time "When the wagon was to descend a hill, the mana ger released the upper extremity! of the eon voy from the hook, and pressing the breast against the wheel produced3 such a degree of friction, as to make the carriage descend with a proper motion t Some times the horse was unhitched from the front of the vehicle, and fastened by a breast-chain behind it, so as. to aid in re tarding the descent. This whole process, however, was not a little dangerous. When the roads were wet, the wheels would lick up dirt from the rails, and cause them to become exceedingly: slip pery. The gravitating force of the wag on and its load, down the steep declivity, would then j set at defiance the utmost powers of the convoy, the. attendant was compelled to consult his own safety, the carriage was precipitated with an increas ing velocity, " running amain," as it was common to say, killing horses, overturn ing and dashing in pieces cevery tning it encountered, and finally itself ijith its contents broken and scattered in smoking fragments. J By extending the conyoy be yond the bolt at. its lower end, and adding another breast to act upon the forjewfteel also, it was made more effectual in pre venting these consequences. Still, such accidents happened not unfrequenily, as we are told, while these were the only methods of conducting wagons 'over unre duced, hills. H :";;' 1 . V Because the wooden rails Were japt to have their fibres shivered and damaged by the wheels, a second rail 'was added on the top, . which as soon as it became mate terially injured, could be taken eff and replaced by another, with little troublef andj without weakening the sleepers by frequent boring for the purpose of pinning the new rails upon them. At length, in stead of these second rails, iron bars be gan to be substituted, of sufficient breadth and thickn ess ; and thus the wooden rail- or du- rif ili ti.1 HA.-k: . . lyr ttrca-thncd. Tbk' corner post cf a hoasa WrbKsJ'C srfid timber.' To fifyfA- oa,ofS mnr. ..n .),: t V lr" rail .5 ron projects underneath, U downwards, growing d?eLP adtf4H of a curve, as it recede - s far Ait . " vu nmui us extremities i est. Ffci Shortly : after, the introduction , plate raiL an iron mil jToa of r. was invented called the! CiWntfoV Thebreadth ofe usj two. inches and a half. Aeu iiabreadth a little wa down dual y diminish to 4 ing down to half an incfi, and 1' preateit,midwaj betw7eb these ?f 5 opon the block. . of Monf, but iron chains, as they irestvled ff fastened wn rblf them into the blocks iad are . vte with upright parallel aid,,. ? 'Hi ?nd of the rails i'n & eiatt US 5 one another, and con6nethem,i4 in :their nlaces;: T?. m x mcouvemences were experifQM in cast iron rails rone from thfrS of that species . of if on r th vJrS their shortness and frequency of the io these rails beine- at the itmot than four feet : in lengthi It rC that at every joint, the jblock or & was ant to change its nnaTrin - t --r- O rWVU Quired the least degree of obliouitT .S way attained its perfection,' both rability and ease of draught. ' v The next change was to make the rails aW aA. z 'l i . . A M7' i - wrm ' oi cast iron msieau ox wooa. nis wasrt first done, -we. are i n formed ,.. about 1 1 767, by way of experiment," at Sth4 iron works of Colebrook dale. But if such a trial was then made, they Were probably not successfully applied until, th year 1 776, when Mr. Carr says they wer-e .first introduced as an invention" of his own, at the Dukf NorfolkVcollierymeart Shei field- l That which is -dehbminaled the f 'Plate-rail, was the first; f," The most approved rails of this sort are 4 feet lpngi 4 inches wide, and Jan anchi thick I They meet at their ends ;in a strict join and are pinned tx the supports. Theyi form continuous fiat, surface: forTthe wheels which are not flanged but are prevented from passing off by- an .upright ledge' or flange three inches high, along the edge m nJvl I I an end of one rail would be elevat the end of the adjacent rail, and a tl vusaiutt urjuiu must occur 10 tfte W&eclin passing from one to the other- Attemcti were made to prevent this, by different forms given ,to the chain in which tberaili restedupontheblock3.il - About, the year 1805, .trial was made bf Mr. C.r Nixon, of wrought iron rails, each piece being a bar from one to two inches square, and two feet long, connected bi a lap joint, so thatj one pin fastened dowa twb contiguous bars, J by passing throu both- In October, 1820, Mr. John Bu-. kinshaw, of the Bedlinjrton iron yorks, obtained a patent for janj improTement the form of malleable 'iron rails, tie "ma'dt his rails -similar in j 8lape to the cast iroi edge rail,'! giving to each a length of eigfe teen or twenty feet,:' and fastening thq down upon supports, at 'every three feet In consequence of this, the joints were less frequent, the rail less liable to fn ture, and a number I of the blocks be ing bound together by one piece, were not so apt to change thir onrin&l posi tion. Whether the malleable ml is crt teraDle to the cast, appears to be a quei tion still unsettled. ;It is one which will be ultimately determined by experience, as all that is known in regard to the nil ways has already beeni In 1817, Ik, Hawks', of Gatehead,! : attempted to coa-, bine, the advantages of malleable aid nst iron, by making the lower part of se sort, and the upper surface of thejother- Cast iron not bearing as much flexure u wrought without cracking, it was thotviit not to succeed weil in practice. U Strickland is of opinion that greater per severance and skill in forming these rails is all that is necessary; to prove tkirn periority. tt " 't"J f " v ' It was discovered in the use of thee rail, which was, at firstlmade round or convex on the top, that it tended contina ally to wear 'a rut or groove in the peri phery of the wheels.' i (To prevent this, the; top of the rails was flattened, and the rims of the wheels case-hardened, Thi is done in castincf by running the liquid iron against a cold ; cylindrical iron snr face. This rim being thus suddenlj cool ed, a hardness is imparted to it, on which the file will not act, and which endures unaltered for many y ears. J The account here given of the origin and progressive improvement of the rail road, is a brief sketch in comparison with what ii were easy to detail on vthis interest subject - It presents ho wever, the iscst proroinent: circumstances of the MfT Tire difficulties and trials through whicl it has. advanced to iti present perfectoi), might have ben more fully and minutelf displayed, arid if any thing has ocenrrei to, the intelligent, reader, as proraisicj greater ad vantages, perhaps he would fia on larger inquiry that? jthe very tip' ents suggested id him by the nature a the subject, have been already put tot-8 test, and dismissed as of little or lue. ; It was very desirable to exhibit nu ny of the objects of ; which we hate keni by: figures representing theo to j eye j but in our own part of the ccaitfj i 4 aa'a Voyages MetalJurgiqesxuote by the same writer.,. , I Idetn.p."8r, T ; " . T Wood, p. 45; Strickland p. 2Z. Tredffold. narrative we have givenj derived r " thorities entitled to our most fide nee, it is evident, it has been unknown cently, is far : from being new ift rt pkrts ofthe world; It is recollected, in one of our counties, during thepf" season,' a speech was delivered to that the .rttlTO to any of sem ten mmseii sustameu . iu a8W eVlil ka a;irrtftl tvn npver heard of, nv was mentioned by Carlton the Ustjc-r sucn iz Pllced menace as una ucw - , by the de of the; facts vrt.cb U gtated, it speiks .volumes- w listened with credence to one w v tously assuming the office of agu counsellor, ought not tojhwf flSlifi ry far Wide of the capacities and cations necessary-fbr such ots There is rashness m undjertawng rjfC? confidently on subjects on wbica r taken no pains! to be informed, u- will do thH is apt presently to find so aa w t I r ' ',. I-., j Wwwf.fiB.fil. 71. ;StricklDd,P .r 1 4- JJJJ. 4U iX&i ; : Y - )W, p, 31. . I i
The Raleigh Register (Raleigh, N.C.)
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Aug. 26, 1828, edition 1
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