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1 - " ' I . THE INDUSTRIAL AND EDUCATION VL INTERESTS OF OUR PEOPLE PARAMOUNT TO ALL OTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF STATE POLICY. Vol. 15. Raleigh, N. C, October 2, 1900. No.43- Aculture. SOMETHING OF THE PHILOSOPHY SOIL MANAGEMENT AND PLANT GROWTH. OF Correspondence of The Progressive Farmer. The ash of plants is made up of mineral matter derived from the soil, chiefly lime, sillica, potash, phos phorus and very small quantities of other minerals. That part of the plant which is driven off by heat when it is dried is water, that part which disappears in the form of gas and smoke when the dried plant is burned, is called its organic matter. Xcarly all of the organic matter of plants consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. "Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, and air also contains large quantities of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Hence it is known that plants obtain their oxygen,, hydrogen and most of their carbon from the air and water and this is 95 pounds of every 100 pounds in weight. But although four-fifths of the air is composed of nitrogen, only one family of plants is known to lie capable of using the nitrogen of the air. Botanists call this family of plants the leguniinosa, or legumes. They all bear seed pods of some kind. They include the clovers, vetches, peas, beans and several kinds of weeds and some trees. All other plants must derive their nitrogen solely from the soil. It has recently been discovered that the legumes are enabled to take nitrogen from the air by means of bacteria that operate upon their j roots. It is true that as falling rain descends thrpugh the air it absorbs j some atmospheric nitrogen, which it j carries to the soil in a form ready for the use of plants, but the quan tity is small ironi 2 to 4 pounds per acre in a year. Much nitrogen exists in most soils j in the form of rotted and rotting j vegetable matter, called humus. ; This quantity varies from 7,000 to j 28,000 pounds per acre in the first j three feet in depth of the soil. j But before plants can take up and use this organic nitrogen already in the soil or that which may be sup- j plied in the form of manures and commercial fertilizers, it must be broken down and converted into am- monia and then into nitric acid by . the agency of these soil bacteria. j We thus find that in all cases plants ! are dependent upon soil bacteria for ; their necessary supplies of nitrogen, j Let us see how it is with their neces- j sary mineral food to form ash. j Originally the earth's crust was j composed of rocks. Ages of exposure j to wind, rain, sun, air and frost j caused the surfaces of rocks to disin tegrate and crumble into dust and upon this layer of dust some plants grew and animals appeared, and the decay of the dead plants and animals added organic matter and thus the soil was formed. Now, one of the most potent agen cies in converting rock into soil is the carbonic acid gas generated by soil bacteria. The rocks being the basis of soils, the character of soil depends largely upon the kind of rock from which it was derived. The most fertile soils are derived from granite and lime stone. Sandstone soils are inferior. In the surface soil of cultivated lu Uls there are from 30,000 to 1,500, '" bacteria in each gram of the soil 'tbout half a thimbleful). The street 'lust of Naples was found to contain irom 10,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 bac- t- na per gram It has also been found that the mini- i -in i. i !'T ot irerms m ueserc anu. iureM s ils is much smaller than in culti ited soils and few3r in sandy soils than in clay soils. In cultivated oi!s the more activo and frequent tho cultivation the more bacteria, ooiis rich in humus are also rich in aeteria. The number of soil bac teria is much greater in summer than in winter. There are more hacteria in the soil of hoed crops, iike potatoes, than in the soil of grain 1 l ops like wheat. We thus find that i-i truth cultivation may take the place of manure. But we must re iiemler that cultivation only enables the soil bacteria to render the ma nure already in the soil available to the growing plants ; hence contin uous cultivation without adding ma nure or growing a crop of legumes would in time exhaust the soil of its plant food. But soils too rich in humus become sour and this checks the operations of soil baceria. This is seen in muck soils. Nitrification can only take place in a feebly alkaline medium. In an acid condition of the soil, said acidity must be overcome by the use of lime before nitrification can actively be gin. A heavy dose of lime by unduly in creasing the alkalimity of the soil, may at first check or suspend nitri fication until said lime has been con verted into carbonate. This, how ever, takes place rapidly, diminish ing in turn its strong alkaline prop erties and permitting nitrification to commence more actively than be fore. The nitrifying ferments grow only in the presence of air. The effect of stirring and pulverizing the soil is to aid nitrification, bringing the oxygen of the air into more immediate con tact with the nitrifying organisms. Exact experiments have further more demonstrated an important law, i. e., that the effect of cultiva tion is to markedly increase nitrifi cation, and in a ratio proportionate to its thoroughness and frequency. Bacteria of all kinds, including the nitrifying organism, grow only in the presence of moisture. In a dry soil nitrification cannot take place, hence in periods of drouth where the superficial layers of the soil for a dexth of several inches become dry nitrification is suspended ; on the other hand, an excess of water pre vents nitrification by excluding air ; hence waterlogged soils must first be drained before they become x)roper nitrifying beds. In a wet soil not only is nitrification inactive or en tirely suspended, but the opposite process of dentrifications take place, with the loss of nitrogen in the free gaseous condition. The function of underdrains is thus not only to withdraw the ex cess of subsoil water, but also by the downward movement of the same to draw air into the soil and thus sup ply oxygen to the nitrifying bacteria. Nitrates arc very soluble and are easily leached out of soils by rains. This loss is greater m sandy soils than in heavier kinds ; it is greater from fallow land than from lands covered by vegetation ; hence if we would prevent nitrates from being leached out of soils, it is important to keep the ground covered with some crop throughout the year, sum mer and winter. In view of the rapid disappearance of nitrates from the soil, nitrate of soda as a fertilizer should be applied in small quantities while the crop is growing. The custom therefore of introducing nitrate of soda with tho seed is a most wasteful operation. The amount of nitrates lost from an unmanured field at Rothamsted, kept fallow and free from weeds, was an average of three successive years 38 pounds per acre per annum ; the corresponding loss from wheat land, an average of 19 years, was 10 pounds icr acre per annum, or less than one-third the loss from fallow land. The effect of sed, as compared with wheat, in still further preventing losses of nitrates from the soil, is still more marked, as shown by the experiments at Rothamsted and else where. The nitrifying organism cannot multiply except in the presence among other elements of phosphoric acid and potash. Nitrification is ac cordingly aided by applications of mineral fertilizers. Furthermore, the ability of a crop to utilize the nitrates of the soil is considerably diminished when there is a deficiency of available mineral constituents, especially of potash and phosphoric acid. Experiments at Rothamsted, England, have shown that the quantity of nitrates which passed out of the soil in the drainage was considerably diminished as a result of the application of mineral fertilizers. The losses of nitrates from soils are greatest from wheat harvest to spring sowing, and least during the summer months. This fact teaches a most important principle, that is, that ground should be kept in some crop as much of the time as possible, especially during the fall and winter. Corn land should never be left fal low through the winter. The same is equally true of tomato and truck ing land. Either these crops should be followed by wheat, or some cover crop put in to conserve nitrates. A growth of crimson clozer, cow peas, vetch, bur clover, rye or even weeds left on the land during the winter will save much nitrogen. The living crops like crimson or bur clover, rye, wheat or winter vetch are more efficient than a dead crop of pea vines Qr weeds. Then we find that besides supply ing nitrogen to the soils in the form of manures or legumes turned under we may utilize the great stores (7,000 to 28,000 pounds per acre) already there by encouraging the multiplica tion of soil bacteria in three ways underdraining, deep plowing and frequent cultivation. It is estimated that every cultivation of a crop is equal to a dressing of nitrate of soda, and is much cheaper. It pays to cultivate often, though there be no weeds nor crust. Such intensive culture will in time exhaust the soil unless legumes be frequently grown in rotation with the crops that re ceive clean culture. J. L. Ladd. Bay City, Tex. MAKING GERMAN SAUERK-RAUT. Correspondence of The Progressive Farmer. A great many 'items of interest to j farmers come from our consuls in different parts of the world to the State Department here. Last spring I sent The Progressive Farmer a de scription of Chinese farming, and a little later an insight into Belgian poultry raising. And now as it is about time for sauer-kraut making in the Old North State, I think the following letter recently received by the State Department from Consul Murphy, of Madgeburg Germany, re- garding the far-famed German sauer- kraut, will interest your readers, Consul Murphy writes : "The best German sauer kraut is made in Madgeburg ; but when a consular officer attempts to ascertain how it is made, he encounters the usual insuperable obstacle business secrets. The manufacturer politely replies to all inquiries, 'My recipe is what makes my business profitable. If I gave it to you, you could make the same sauer-kraut in Washington. The fame of Magdeburg would thus be dimmed, and wThat would become of the orders which mean so much to me?' "The process of manufacture, omitting business secrets, is about as follows : "Take a number of heads of white cabbage, as fresh as possible, and cut them into fine, long shreds. Place in layers in barrels, or kegs, strew ing salt over each layer, using one half a pound of salt for each twenty five cabbages. Press the mass down with clean feet, wooden shoes, or a heavy stamper. Place a cover on the barrel, and upon this lay a heavy stone. This presses the sauer-kraut more arid conserves it better. The sauer-kraut must then be allowed to ferment in a cellar for from three to eight days, according to the tempera ture of the room. The barrel should then be tightly closed and liept in a cool place, preferably in a cellar. "Fancy grades of sauer-kraut are produced by pouring white wine into the barrels after they are filled. Ap ples chopped very fine are also some times mixed with the cabbage. "After the barrel is closed the sauer-kraut will be ready for use in about a week. As soon as some is used, the barrel should be covered and a stone again placed on top. "In preparing and keeping sauer kraut, sunshine and extremes of heat and cold should be avoided." With best wishes for The Pro gressive Farmer. B. Washington, D. C. GROWING WHEAT. Prof. Jas. B. Hunnicutt, of Geor gia, who contributed an interesting article on alfalfa to our last issue, writes the following interesting ar ticle on wheat to a recent issue of one of our exchanges. This is a sub ject Of unusual interest just at this time and we are glad to copy Prof. Hunnicutt 's letter as follows : This is the greatestfof all the bread crops. We should study its nature and adaptations so that we can ad dress ourselves to wheat growing in telligently. Wheat generally means winter wheat. Spring wheat is only adapted to limited localities. Winter wheat is a biennial plant. It requires part of two years in reaching full maturity. It needs the fall of one year for root development, and the spring of another year for seed, de velopment. As root development must come first, this is the most im portant paVt for us too look after. If this is perfect, then there may be a full seed crop. But if from any cause the root development is incomplete, the grain will be cut short. SOWING THE GRAIN. We now see that the manner of sowing the grain is very important. The roots must have time and room and food, or they will not reach full growth. The time should be about six months, and hence should begin as early as practicable in fall, so as to reach the greatest possible growth before mid -winter checks them. Sep tember in most of this country would be the best time, all things consid ered. But local conditions often change this. The Hessian fly must be considered. If we sow too early this fly may cause great damage and sometimes complete ruin. They are much worse where there is grass upon the land, and much less trouble some after any crop that has re quired clean culture. Henco it is often a matter of great importance what crop to follow. Cotton gives the best possible preparation for wheat. But the cotton crop does not mature early enough, hence many prefer to follow corn. Peas are better. They leave the soil in excellent condition mechanically, j and store away ammonia for the use j of the wheat. A clover sod is the j best of all rotations. PREPARATION OF SOIL BFJ)S. Wheat roots desire to go down four and one-half to five feet in the ! earth, seeking water and food. This they will do if the hardpan is broken thoroughly. Deep plowing and sub soiling and repeated harrowings will all pay. The cultivation must be done before sowing the seed. A deep mellow root bed is of prime irn portance. If the soil bed is perfect the danger from rust is almost en tirely avoided. If to this deep and thorough preparation we add a lib eral use of acid phosphate and pot ash wTe have an ideal seed bed. Vari ous experiments show that this is a vital "point in successful wheat grow ing. In a bed thus prepared the roots of wheat sown in September and early part of October reach such a wonderful development that there is little danger of winter killing. The roots are so numerous, deep and strong that they will resist success fully the power of frost. Again, the top will be so far advanced as to fur nish a good covering over the soil. This green covering keeps the soil warm. Wheat thus sown will have four times the root development of wheat sown in November. For the South this is a matter of first importance. SELECTING SEED. There is a great difference in the yielding power of different varieties of wheat. Rust is the great enemy. Hence, a rust proof variety should be secured if possible. The further South we go, the greater danger from rust. At presont the "Red Amber" and "Turkish Red" seem to be lQaders along this line. Too much care cannot be given to this point. When ready to sow, the seed should-be washed in very hot water, or in a solution of bluestone, so as to destroy smut, spores or germs. Sowing with drills seem? to be growing in favor. This helps to protect the young plants against frost. But we rather think the chief advantage comes from the better preparation of soil secured by this plan, together with greater uniform ity of depth of covering of the seed. FERTILIZING. The manuring should be done broadcast and thoroughly incor porated with the soil by harrowing. The chief point is to secure as great solubility as possible, so as to render prompt aid to the roots. Ammonia is needed for promoting healthy growth. This can generally be secured from peas or clover, or thor ough culture and barnyard manures. Acid phosphate is needed to insure heavy grain in the heads, plump and full. Potash gives strength to the stems and helps to resist rust. It gives a healthy tone to the entire plant, and this is of prime import ance. RESULTS. If good seed be selected, soil prep aration thorough, fertilizing proper ly proportioned and seed sown early, the wheat crop will be sure and profitable. Carelessness, slipshod methods and general inattention have made many farmers flour buy ers, who should be wheat sellers. From thirty to forty bushels should be the average yield from intelligent sowing. Wheat growing is not lim ited by climate or soil, but by intel ligent sowing. Hence we say to every Southern farmer, "Sow plenty of good wheat Have home-grown bread to eat !" James B. Hunnicutt. BOOKS FOR FARMERS. A young farmer of Adair county, Iowa, writes Wallace's Farmer as follows : "Can a young man with a common school education study out the scien tific part of farming without going to college? I cannot leave home and. have only evenings to study. Is it too deep to study out alone? There are three or four studies which I would like to master ; live stock judging, feeding, elements of the soil, and farm management. Are there any books treating on these subjects?" To this inquiry Dr. Wallace replies as follows : While "nothing can fully take the place of a practical college education, our young friend may get a fair working knowledge of scientific agri culture by home study and close ob servation. Live stock judging is something that can be thoroughly mastered only by constant practice. We are7 in great need of a text-book on this subject and it is to be hoped that some of our expert judges will furnish it before long. Farm management is a matter of executive ability and experience. Our correspondent can, however, get a good working knowledge of practical farming if he will begin with "The Principles of Agriculture" by Prof. Bailey, and "The Soil" by Prof. King, both volumes of the Rural Science Series published by The MacMillian Company,New York. If he will thoroughly master these, which he can do in the course of a year, he will have taken a long stride toward being an up-to-date in fact, will be surprised himself at the pay in the course of the year in dollars he will receive from this course of study. The best time to slaughter hogs for farm or family purposes, is when the weather is dry, cool and frosty. After the hogs are nicoly butchered let them dry and cool out nicely be fore you commence cutting up. After they are nicely cut into shoulders, middlings and hams, salt with nice salt, a little saltpetre mixed with it, on a platform. After it has remained in salt about six weeks, hang the meat up in close, dark smoke-houso, and as soon as hung- up smoke the meat with green hickory wood until it is a nice brown color. The pre servative power of the smoke is ow ing to the small amount of creosote it contains. After it is properly smoked and dried, flies nor bugs must not be allowed, access to it. To prevent this put the hams and shoul ders into thick paper sacks, securely bound up and hang up. If the sides are not put in paper sacks; they can be put in a box with layers of shelled corn between the sides and the box covered. Robt. C. Allison, Glade Springs, Va. TWO WAYS OF FARMING. A correspondent in the Ohio Farmer in comparing the difference between intelligent and thrifty farming and slipshod methods too common in all sections, says : "By looking carefully over a rural community we aee that not all farm ers and their families are abridged in needed leisure and time for social pleasure. This is because there are two general agricultural classes liv ing side by side. One represents the man who drives his work, has little to complain of, and the other, one who lets his work drive him and who is always bitterly complaining. The farmer who does not "get along" belongs to the latter class. He makes many unnecessary trips to town, and golden hours flit by wThile he lounges. He does not start to hoe the corn and potatoes till the weeds are choking them, and the grass in his meadows is past its prime before it is cut. His work is proverbially ten days behind hand from seeding time till harvest and his crops suffer in consequence. This man takes his leisure at the wrong time, right at critical periods in the cultivation and harvesting of his crops. In other. words he fails in management. "His more wise and consequently more successful agricultural brother pursues an opposite course. He meets half way nature's efforts to help him, and keeps his work well in hand and under his. control. The care of his crops and stock always receives' first consideration, because they rep resent his living his bank account. While his negligent brother is mak ing those unnecessary and prolonged visits to town he is improving the golden moments by a brisk, indus trious and alert policy, which will keep the cultivation of his farm so thoroughly in hand that he will haVe besides plenty of lesure for sufficient social enjoyment with his family and friends, time to read the best journals, and also. to indulge with his family in occasional days of recreation. Thus a farmer, by proper management, may enjoy as much or more leisure than a man in any other line of business, and at the same time reap substantial profits provided his hours or days of leisure are chosen at the right time. We have urged this practice of following the plow with the harrow in the spring of the year in order to prevent the formation of clods as to conserve the moisture. While there is little danger of clod forma tion now, there is even more neces sity for following with the harrow in order to conserve moisture than there was last spring. When" the time comes to sow wheat, it is all important that there be sufficient moisture in the ground to secure vigorous and prompt germination. There is little enough time under the best conditions to allow the wheat to take firm root, to stool out well, and be ready for the winter. To secure this vigorous growth, moisture is all-important ; therefore, conserve it by using the harrow while you can. It is just as easy to harrow the ground immediately after plowing as it is after it has become lumpy, in case, the land is plowed a little wet, and parted with its moisture and thus unfit to sprout the grain. It is the prompt attention to some of these seemingly unimportant things that marks the difference between a good farmer and a poor one, or be tween success and failure. Henry Wallace. RAPE FOR EAY. Correspondence of The Progressive Farmer. I have never grown any rape, but would like to know if it can be used dry or as hay. S. E. M. Union Co., N. C. Rape cannot under any circum stances be used for hay. It is ex clusively a soiling crop, and must he fed green, like cabbage. A good Allianceman keeps the principles and purposes of the Order before his neighbors, so that they may become familiar with them and learn to adopt them. i
The Progressive Farmer (Raleigh, N.C.)
Standardized title groups preceding, succeeding, and alternate titles together.
Oct. 2, 1900, edition 1
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